Plasmoid Formation and Strong Radiative Cooling in a Driven Magnetic Reconnection Experiment.

We present the first experimental study of plasmoid formation in a magnetic reconnection layer undergoing rapid radiative cooling, a regime relevant to extreme astrophysical plasmas. Two exploding aluminum wire arrays, driven by the Z machine, generate a reconnection layer (S_{L}≈120) in which the cooling rate far exceeds the hydrodynamic transit rate (τ_{hydro}/τ_{cool}>100). The reconnection layer generates a transient burst of >1 keV x-ray emission, consistent with the formation and subsequent rapid cooling of the layer. Time-gated x-ray images show fast-moving (up to 50 km s^{-1}) hotspots in the layer, consistent with the presence of plasmoids in 3D resistive magnetohydrodynamic simulations. X-ray spectroscopy shows that these hotspots generate the majority of Al K-shell emission (around 1.6 keV) prior to the onset of cooling, and exhibit temperatures (170 eV) much greater than that of the plasma inflows and the rest of the reconnection layer, thus providing insight into the generation of high-energy radiation in radiatively cooled reconnection events.

AC compensation of 3D magnetic diagnostic signals in DIII-D and National Spherical Torus Experiment-Upgrade (NSTX-U) for real-time application.

A time domain algorithm has been developed to remove the vacuum pickup generated by both coil current (DC) and induced vessel current (AC) in real time from three dimensional (3D) magnetic diagnostic signals in the National Spherical Torus Experiment-Upgrade (NSTX-U) and DIII-D tokamaks. The possibility of detecting 3D plasma perturbations in real time is essential in modern and future tokamaks to avoid and control MHD instabilities. The presence of vacuum field pickup, due to toroidally asymmetric (3D) coils or to misalignment between sensors and axisymmetric (2D) coils, pollutes the measured plasma 3D field, making the detection of the magnetic field produced by the plasma challenging. Although the DC coupling between coils and sensors can be easily calculated and removed, the AC part is more difficult. An algorithm based on a layered low-pass filter approach for the AC compensation and its application for DIII-D and NSTX-U data is presented, showing that this method reduces the vacuum pickup to the noise level. Comparison of plasma response measurements with and without vacuum compensation shows that accurate mode locking detection and plasma response identification require precise AC and DC compensations.

Performance Scaling in Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion Experiments.

We present experimental results from the first systematic study of performance scaling with drive parameters for a magnetoinertial fusion concept. In magnetized liner inertial fusion experiments, the burn-averaged ion temperature doubles to 3.1 keV and the primary deuterium-deuterium neutron yield increases by more than an order of magnitude to 1.1×10^{13} (2 kJ deuterium-tritium equivalent) through a simultaneous increase in the applied magnetic field (from 10.4 to 15.9 T), laser preheat energy (from 0.46 to 1.2 kJ), and current coupling (from 16 to 20 MA). Individual parametric scans of the initial magnetic field and laser preheat energy show the expected trends, demonstrating the importance of magnetic insulation and the impact of the Nernst effect for this concept. A drive-current scan shows that present experiments operate close to the point where implosion stability is a limiting factor in performance, demonstrating the need to raise fuel pressure as drive current is increased. Simulations that capture these experimental trends indicate that another order of magnitude increase in yield on the Z facility is possible with additional increases of input parameters.

A computer-based avatar task can differentiate avoidant and non-avoidant coping styles.

Background/Objective: Coping styles play a role in how individuals respond to stress and therapy. One aspect of coping which has been linked to adverse outcomes including anxiety disorders and PTSD is avoidance. However, a tendency to avoid may affect the accuracy of paper and pencil inventories used to identify avoidant temperaments. Previously, we showed that a computer-based task in which an on-screen "avatar" is guided through a series of onscreen events could predict avoidance including behavioral inhibition, harm avoidance, and self-reported PTSD symptoms. Since some coping styles involve avoidance, we extended this work to determine whether scores on the avatar task would also differentiate avoidant and non-avoidant coping styles as measured by the Brief COPE. Methods: One hundred and fifty undergraduates voluntarily completed the avatar task and the Brief COPE. Results: Scores on the avatar task had a significant positive relationship with an aggregate score for the five avoidant coping styles and a significant negative relationship with an aggregate score for the nine non-avoidant coping styles. Conclusions: The effectiveness of the avatar task to differentiate coping styles based on avoidance further validates this task and also shows selectivity to avoidant coping styles as opposed to other non-avoidant coping styles.

US alone trials presented during acquisition do not disrupt classical eyeblink conditioning: Empirical and computational findings.

Studies of partial reinforcement in eyeblink conditioning have typically shown slower learning of a CS-US association when paired CS-US trials are interleaved with CS-alone trials. However, recent work has shown that CS-US learning is not slowed by interleaved US-alone trials. This discrepancy is surprising since both partial reinforcement protocols reduce the total number of paired CS-US trials. Previously, Kimble et al. (1955) reported that inserting a block of US-alone trials during CS-US training did not disrupt eyeblink acquisition. Here, we sought to replicate and extend these findings by comparing interleaved vs. blocked US-alone trials during CS-US paired training. Ninety-seven undergraduates volunteered for this experiment for research credit. Participants received 60 acquisition trials, consisting of either 100% CS-US paired trials, 50% US-alone trials intermixed with CS-US paired trials, or a block of 20 US-alone trials inserted between blocks of 20 CS-US trials. We also utilized a previously published computational model of hippocampal and cerebellar learning to test the effects of these US-alone protocols. Both empirical and computational results supported the finding that US-alone trials, either intermixed or inserted as a block of trials, do not disrupt acquisition of conditioned eyeblinks. Possible neural substrates of these US-alone effects are discussed.

Uncertainty of trial timing enhances acquisition of conditioned eyeblinks in anxiety vulnerable individuals.

Recent work has found that behaviorally inhibited (BI) individuals exhibit enhanced eyeblink conditioning in omission and yoked training as well as with schedules of partial reinforcement. We hypothesized that spacing CS-US paired trials over a longer period of time by extending and varying the inter-trial interval (ITI) would facilitate learning. All participants completed the Adult Measure of Behavioural Inhibition (AMBI) and were grouped as behaviorally inhibited (BI) and non-behaviorally inhibited (NI) based on a median split score of 15.5. All participants received 3 US alone trials and 30CS-US paired trials for acquisition training and 20CS alone trials for extinction training in one session. Conditioning stimuli were a 500 ms tone conditioned stimulus (CS) and a 50-ms air puff unconditional stimulus (US). Participants were randomly assigned to receive a short ITI (mean=30+/- 5s), a long ITI (mean=57+/- 5s) or a variable long ITI (mean=57 s, range 25-123 s). No significant ITI effects were observed for acquisition or extinction. Overall, anxiety vulnerable individuals exhibited enhanced conditioned eyeblink responses as compared to non-vulnerable individuals. This enhanced acquisition of CRs was significant in spaced training with a variable long ITI, but not the short or long ITI. There were no significant effects of ITI or BI on extinction. These findings are interpreted based on the idea that uncertainty plays a role in anxiety and can enhance associative learning in anxiety vulnerable individuals.

Behaviorally inhibited individuals demonstrate significantly enhanced conditioned response acquisition under non-optimal learning conditions.

Behavioral inhibition (BI) is an anxiety vulnerability factor associated with hypervigilance to novel stimuli, threat, and ambiguous cues. The progression from anxiety risk to a clinical disorder is unknown, although the acquisition of defensive learning and avoidance may be a critical feature. As the expression of avoidance is also central to anxiety development, the present study examined avoidance acquisition as a function of inhibited temperament using classical eyeblink conditioning. Individuals were classified as behaviorally inhibited (BI) or non-inhibited (NI) based on combined scores from the Adult and Retrospective Measures of Behavioural Inhibition (AMBI and RMBI, respectively). Acquisition was assessed using delay, omission, or yoked conditioning schedules of reinforcement. Omission training was identical to delay, except that the emission of an eyeblink conditioned response (CR) resulted in omission of the unconditioned airpuff stimulus (US) on that trial. Each subject in the yoked group was matched on total BI score to a subject in the omission group, and received the same schedule of CS and US delivery, resulting in a partial reinforcement training schedule. Delay conditioning elicited significantly more CRs compared to the omission and yoked contingencies, the latter two of which did not differ from each other. Thus, acquisition of an avoidance response was not apparent. BI individuals demonstrated enhanced acquisition overall, while partial reinforcement training significantly distinguished between BI and NI groups. Enhanced learning in BI may be a function of an increased defensive learning capacity, or sensitivity to uncertainty. Further work examining the influence of BI on learning acquisition is important for understanding individual differences in disorder etiology in anxiety vulnerable cohorts.

Quantitative study of guide-field effects on Hall reconnection in a laboratory plasma.

The effect of guide field on magnetic reconnection is quantitatively studied by systematically varying an applied guide field in the Magnetic Reconnection Experiment (MRX). The quadrupole field, a signature of two-fluid reconnection at zero guide field, is altered by a finite guide field. It is shown that the reconnection rate is significantly reduced with increasing guide field, and this dependence is explained by a combination of local and global physics: locally, the in-plane Hall currents are reduced, while globally guide field compression produces an increased pressure both within and downstream of the reconnection region.

Validation of a food frequency questionnaire to measure intakes of inulin and oligofructose.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Inulin and oligofructose are prebiotic carbohydrates associated with numerous health benefits. The aim of this study was to accurately measure inulin and oligofructose intakes and to develop and validate a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A 7-d semi-weighed food diary (FD) was used to measure intakes in 66 healthy subjects. A 23-item FFQ was developed to measure short-term inulin and oligofructose intakes over the same 7 days and was completed twice on 2 separate days. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in inulin intake (4.0 ± 1.3 vs 4.0 ± 1.4 g/d, P = 0.646) or oligofructose intake (3.8 ± 1.2 vs 3.8 ± 1.3 g/d, P = 0.864) when measured using the 7-d FD or the FFQ. Bland-Altman analysis demonstrated low mean differences between the FD and FFQ in measuring intakes of inulin (-0.09 g/d) and oligofructose (-0.03 g/d). The FFQ categorised 89% of subjects into the same or adjacent tertiles of intakes as the 7-d FD. For the majority of food items, kappa values indicated 'substantial' or 'almost perfect' agreement for assignment of 'portion size' and 'frequency of consumption' between the FFQs completed on separate days. CONCLUSIONS: The FFQ is a valid and reliable method for measuring short-term inulin and oligofructose intakes for use in dietary surveys and clinical trials.

Novel age-dependent learning deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease: implications for translational research.

Computational modeling predicts that the hippocampus plays an important role in the ability to apply previously learned information to novel problems and situations (referred to as the ability to generalize information or simply as 'transfer learning'). These predictions have been tested in humans using a computer-based task on which individuals with hippocampal damage are able to learn a series of complex discriminations with two stimulus features (shape and color), but are impaired in their ability to transfer this information to newly configured problems in which one of the features is altered. This deficit occurs despite the fact that the feature predictive of the reward (the relevant information) is not changed. The goal of the current study was to develop a mouse analog of transfer learning and to determine if this new task was sensitive to pathological changes in a mouse model of AD. We describe a task in which mice were able to learn a series of concurrent discriminations that contained two stimulus features (odor and digging media) and could transfer this learned information to new problems in which the irrelevant feature in each discrimination pair was altered. Moreover, we report age-dependent deficits specific to transfer learning in APP+PS1 mice relative to non-transgenic littermates. The robust impairment in transfer learning may be more sensitive to AD-like pathology than traditional cognitive assessments in that no deficits were observed in the APP+PS1 mice on the widely used Morris water maze task. These data describe a novel and sensitive paradigm to evaluate mnemonic decline in AD mouse models that has unique translational advantages over standard species-specific cognitive assessments (e.g., water maze for rodent and delayed paragraph recall for humans).

Acquired equivalence changes stimulus representations.

Acquired equivalence is a paradigm in which generalization is increased between two superficially dissimilar stimuli (or antecedents) that have previously been associated with similar outcomes (or consequents). Several possible mechanisms have been proposed, including changes in stimulus representations, either in the form of added associations or a change of feature salience. A different way of conceptualizing acquired equivalence is in terms of strategic inference: Confronted with a choice on which it has no evidence, the organism may infer from its history of reinforcement what the best option is, and that inference is observed as acquired equivalence. To test this account, we combined an incremental learning task with an episodic memory test. Drawings of faces were made equivalent through acquired equivalence training, and then paired with words in a list learning paradigm. When participants were asked to recognize specific face-word pairings, they confused faces more often when they had been made equivalent. This suggests that prior acquired equivalence training does influence how memories are coded. We also tested whether this change in coding reflected acquisition of new associations, as suggested by the associative mediation account, or whether stimuli become more similar through a reweighting of stimulus features, as assumed by some categorization theories. Results supported the associative mediation view. We discuss similarities between this view and exemplar theories of categorization performance.

A neurocomputational model of tonic and phasic dopamine in action selection: a comparison with cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease.

The striatal dopamine signal has multiple facets; tonic level, phasic rise and fall, and variation of the phasic rise/fall depending on the expectation of reward/punishment. We have developed a network model of the striatal direct pathway using an ionic current level model of the medium spiny neuron that incorporates currents sensitive to changes in the tonic level of dopamine. The model neurons in the network learn action selection based on a novel set of mathematical rules that incorporate the phasic change in the dopamine signal. This network model is capable of learning to perform a sequence learning task that in humans is thought to be dependent on the basal ganglia. When both tonic and phasic levels of dopamine are decreased, as would be expected in unmedicated Parkinson's disease (PD), the model reproduces the deficits seen in a human PD group off medication. When the tonic level is increased to normal, but with reduced phasic increases and decreases in response to reward and punishment, respectively, as would be expected in PD medicated with L-Dopa, the model again reproduces the human data. These findings support the view that the cognitive dysfunctions seen in Parkinson's disease are not solely either due to the decreased tonic level of dopamine or to the decreased responsiveness of the phasic dopamine signal to reward and punishment, but to a combination of the two factors that varies dependent on disease stage and medication status.

Probabilistic categorization: how do normal participants and amnesic patients do it?

In probabilistic categorization tasks, various cues are probabilistically (but not perfectly) predictive of class membership. This means that a given combination of cues sometimes belongs to one class and sometimes to another. It is not yet clear how categorizers approach such tasks. Here, we review evidence in favor of two alternative conceptualizations of learning in probabilistic categorization: as rule-based learning, or as incremental learning. Each conceptualization forms the basis of a way of analyzing performance: strategy analysis assumes rule-based learning, while rolling regression analysis assumes incremental learning. Here, we contrasted the ability of each to predict performance of normal categorizers. Both turned out to predict responses about equally well. We then reviewed performance of patients with damage to regions deemed important for either rule-based or incremental learning. Evidence was again about equally compatible with either alternative conceptualization of learning, although neither predicted an involvement of the medial temporal lobe. We suggest that a new way of conceptualizing probabilistic categorization might be fruitful, in which the medial temporal lobe help set up representations that are then used by other regions to assign patterns to categories.

Basal ganglia and dopamine contributions to probabilistic category learning.

Studies of the medial temporal lobe and basal ganglia memory systems have recently been extended towards understanding the neural systems contributing to category learning. The basal ganglia, in particular, have been linked to probabilistic category learning in humans. A separate parallel literature in systems neuroscience has emerged, indicating a role for the basal ganglia and related dopamine inputs in reward prediction and feedback processing. Here, we review behavioral, neuropsychological, functional neuroimaging, and computational studies of basal ganglia and dopamine contributions to learning in humans. Collectively, these studies implicate the basal ganglia in incremental, feedback-based learning that involves integrating information across multiple experiences. The medial temporal lobes, by contrast, contribute to rapid encoding of relations between stimuli and support flexible generalization of learning to novel contexts and stimuli. By breaking down our understanding of the cognitive and neural mechanisms contributing to different aspects of learning, recent studies are providing insight into how, and when, these different processes support learning, how they may interact with each other, and the consequence of different forms of learning for the representation of knowledge.

Risk and protective haplotypes of the alpha-synuclein gene associated with Parkinson's disease differentially affect cognitive sequence learning.

Alpha-synuclein (SNCA) is a key factor in the regulation of dopaminergic transmission and is related to Parkinson's disease. In this study, we investigated the effects of risk and protective SNCA haplotypes associated with Parkinson's disease on cognitive sequence learning in 204 healthy volunteers. We found that the 3'-block risk SNCA haplotypes are associated with less effective stimulus-reward learning of sequences and with superior context representation of sequences. In contrast, participants with protective haplotypes exhibit better stimulus-reward learning and worse context representation, which suggest that these functions are inversely affected by risk and protective haplotypes. The Rep1 promoter polymorphism does not influence cognitive sequence learning. Because stimulus-reward learning may be mediated by the basal ganglia and context learning may be related to the medial temporal lobe, our data raise the possibility that dopaminergic signals regulated by SNCA inversely affect these memory systems.

Dopaminergic contribution to cognitive sequence learning.

Evidence suggests that dopaminergic mechanisms in the basal ganglia are important in feedback-guided habit learning. To test hypothesis, we assessed cognitive sequence learning in 120 healthy volunteers and measured plasma levels of homovanillic acid [HVA] (a metabolite of dopamine), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid [5-HIAA] (a metabolite of serotonin), and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxypheylglycol [MHPG] (a metabolite of norepinephrine). Results revealed a significant negative relationship between errors in the feedback-guided training phase of the sequence learning task and the plasma HVA level. The HVA level accounted for 10.5% of variance of performance. Participant who had lower HVA level than the median value of the whole sample committed more errors during the training phase compared with participants who had higher HVA plasma level than the median value. A similar phenomenon was not observed for the context-dependent phase of the task and for 5-HIAA and MHPG. These results suggest that dopamine plays a special role in feedback-guided cognitive sequence learning.

Conditional discrimination and reversal in amnesia subsequent to hypoxic brain injury or anterior communicating artery aneurysm rupture.

Human anterograde amnesia can develop following bilateral damage to the hippocampus and medial temporal lobes, as in hypoxic brain injury, or following damage to the basal forebrain, as following anterior communicating artery (ACoA) aneurysm rupture. In both cases, the mnestic deficit may be similar when assessed by standard neuropsychological measures. However, animal and computational models suggest that there are qualitative differences in the pattern of impaired and spared memory abilities following damage to hippocampus versus basal forebrain. Here, we show such a dissociation in human amnesia using a single two-stage task, involving conditional discrimination and reversal. Consistent with a prior study, 10 individuals with anterograde amnesia subsequent to hypoxic brain injury were spared on acquisition but impaired at reversal. However, 10 individuals with amnesia subsequent to ACoA aneurysm showed the opposite pattern of impaired acquisition but spared reversal. The differences between groups cannot be easily ascribed to severity of mnestic or cognitive deficit, since the two amnesic groups performed similarly on neuropsychological tests of memory, intelligence and attention. The results illustrate qualitative differences in memory impairments in hypoxic and ACoA amnesics and highlight the importance of considering etiology in evaluating mnemonic deficits in amnesic populations.

Integrating incremental learning and episodic memory models of the hippocampal region.

By integrating previous computational models of corticohippocampal function, the authors develop and test a unified theory of the neural substrates of familiarity, recollection, and classical conditioning. This approach integrates models from 2 traditions of hippocampal modeling, those of episodic memory and incremental learning, by drawing on an earlier mathematical model of conditioning, SOP (A. Wagner, 1981). The model describes how a familiarity signal may arise from parahippocampal cortices, giving a novel explanation for the finding that the neural response to a stimulus in these regions decreases with increasing stimulus familiarity. Recollection is ascribed to the hippocampus proper. It is shown how the properties of episodic representations in the neocortex, parahippocampal gyrus, and hippocampus proper may explain phenomena in classical conditioning. The model reproduces the effects of hippocampal, septal, and broad hippocampal region lesions on contextual modulation of classical conditioning, blocking, learned irrelevance, and latent inhibition.

Role of the basal ganglia in category learning: how do patients with Parkinson's disease learn?

The purpose of the present study was to gain a deeper understanding of the role of the basal ganglia in learning and memory by examining learning strategies among patients with basal ganglia dysfunction. Using a probabilistic category learning task (the "weather prediction" task) previously shown to be sensitive to basal ganglia function, the authors examined patterns of performance during learning and used mathematical models to capture different learning strategies. Results showed that patients with Parkinson's disease exhibit different patterns of strategy use. Specifically, most controls initially used a simple, but suboptimal, strategy that focused on single-cue-outcome associations; eventually, however, most controls adopted a more complex, optimal learning strategy, integrating single-cue associations to predict outcomes for multiple-cue stimuli. In contrast, the majority of individuals with Parkinson's disease continued to rely on simple single-cue learning strategies throughout the experiment.

Cortico-striatal contributions to feedback-based learning: converging data from neuroimaging and neuropsychology.

The striatum has been widely implicated in cognition, but a precise understanding of its role remains elusive. Here we present converging evidence for the role of the striatum in feedback-based learning. In a prior functional imaging study, healthy controls showed striatal activity during a feedback-based learning task, which was decreased when the same task was learned without feedback. In the present study, we show that individuals with striatal dysfunction due to Parkinson's disease are impaired on the feedback-based task, but not on a non-feedback version of the same task. Parkinson's patients and controls also used different learning strategies depending on feedback structure. This study provides direct behavioural evidence from humans that cortico-striatal systems are necessary for feedback-based learning on a cognitive task. These findings also link between learning impairments in Parkinson's disease and the physiological and computational evidence for the role of midbrain dopaminergic systems in feedback processing.